12. Cypriote Statue in Blended Styles: Cast of the original in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - Cyprus - before 500 B.C.

The helmet and stance of the figure are reminiscent of Assyrian pieces. However, the long robes falling to the feet resembles the peplos on early Greek female figures. Nor is the treatment of the folds of drapery unlike Greek grapery. The original was found with traces of paint.

13. Herakles Capturing the Cattle of Geryon from the Herdsman Eurytion: Cast of the original in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - from Cyprus - before 500 B.C.

This bas-relief is from a pedestal for a colossal statue of Herakles. The original relief was slightly tinted with red and represents one of the labours of Herakles imposed upon by Eurystheus, King of Argos.

14. Cypriote Funerary Stele: Cast of the original in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - from Cyprus - 5th century B.C.

The capital of the stele is designed with lotus flowers and volutes which enclose a sacred tree and sphinxes. According to Cesnola, the figure of the sphinx, like that of the harpy and the siren, was associated with burial rites.

15. Cypriote Funerary Stele: Cast of the original in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - from Cyprus - 5th century B.C.

The stele is carved with sphinxes. The knotted sash was originally painted red.

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21. Head of Athena: Cast of the original in the Berlin Museum - Greek - 6th century B.C.
Athena, the Olympian goddess of wisdom and defensive war, was the patroness and guardian of the city of Athens.

22. Agamemnon, Talthybios and Epeios: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - Greek - 6th century B.C.

Agamemnon, King of Argos and brother to Menelaus, led the Greek (Achaean) armies to Troy (Ilion). He is depicted on this relief with his herald Talthybios and Epeios, the legendary maker of the wooden horse. The original was found on the island of Samothrace in 1790 A.D.

23. Funerary Stele of the Warrior Aristion: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - Greek - late 6th century B.C.

Found on the coast of Attica in 1839 A.D., the richly painted stele was originally crowned with a palm motif. The inscription to Aristion appears on the base while the artist’s name, Aristokles, is inscribed near the depiction of the warrior. The funerary stele is one of the oldest Greek types yet discovered.

24. Group from the West Pediment of the Temple of Aphaia on the Island of Aegina: Cast of the original in the Glyptothek, Munich - Greek - late 6th century B.C.

The figures were recovered in the vicinity of a temple on the island on Aegina in 1811 A.D. by two English and two German architects. They were purchased by Ludwig I of Bavaria, who had them restored by the great sculptor Thorwaldsen in Rome.

The goddess Aphaia, to whom the temple was dedicated, was the Aeginetan counterpart of Artemis. The subject matter of the pediments relates the mythical battles of the Trojan War and depicts legendary warriors. (Note: Age is distinguished from youth bby a beard.)On the west pediment they are engaged in combat on either side of a central figure of a goddess – Pallas Athena or possibly Aphaia.

Exactly how the figures were arranged in the pediment is speculative. However, they are among the earliest illustrations of the Greek custom to fill the angle of the roof with figures.

33. Model of the Western Pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia: Model shows the probable arrangement of the figures of the western pediment

34. The Spinario, or Boy Drawing a Thorn from his Foot: Cast of the original in the Palace of the Conservatori, Rome - Roman copy of a Greek original - 5th century B.C.

The Spinaro is one of several statues whose authenticity is debated. There is conjecture that the Roman Spinaro was created in Hellenistic times and the Fifth Century B.C. stylization was merely incorporated in the work. Moreover, it is contended that “genre” types in Greek sculpture sis not appear before that time.

However, there are similar style characteristics evident in the Roman Spinaro that may be compared with the Olympia Apollo figure from the western pediment of the Temple of Zeus. There is a possibility therefore, that the original work was from the Fifth Century B.C., probably before 450 B.C.

Controversy is apt to arise when it is understood that most existing sources of Greek sculpture were written centuries after the works themselves were created. Pliny the Elder, who wrote mid-First Century A.D., and Pausanias, who wrote in the Second Century A.D. are two such examples. Research is further complicated bu the fact that most original works no longer exist.

35. The Diskobolos or Discus-Thrower: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - Roman copy of Greek original - 5th century B.C.

yron from Eleutherae was reputedly a pupil of Ageladas, as were the sculptors Pheidas and Polykleitos. The Roman copy of The Diskobolos was found in Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli in 1791 A.D. The concept of rhythm was intrinsic to the vitality of Myron’s work. It permeates the form of the athlete who is poised in arrested motion. Myron was considered by many to be the greatest sculptor of realism in the transitional period that is noted for its severe style.

36. Marsyas: Cast of the original in the Lateran Museum, Rome - 5th century B.C.

In myth, the goddess Athena was the inventor of the flute, which was played in pairs. She allegedly discarded her invention because, while playing them. She though her face looked too distorted. However, she was appalled by Marsyas’ brazen attempt to claim them for himself and struck him for his arrogance.

Myron depicted Marsyas in restless motion as he recoils from Athena’s wrath. Satyrs, mythological creatures of the woods with goat-like characteristics, were followers of the wine God, Dionysos. Marsyas, replete with pointed ears and a tail, is shown in marked contrast to the restraint inherent in the sculptor’s Diskobolos.

The Roman copy was found in Rome in 1832 A.D.

37. The Doryphoros or Spear-Bearer: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - Roman copy of a Greek original - 5th century B.C.

Polykleitos of Argos was a contemporary of the sculptor Pheidas. He was celebrated among the ancients, especially for his figures of athletes. Chief among these was The Doryphorous, a bronze statue of a youth in splendid form carrying a lance over his shoulder. The sculptor was called the “canon” or “model” by artists who studied it for its harmony, anatomical correctness and proportion. There are many copies of this famous statue. The Napolitan copy, found at Pompeii in 1797 A.D., is considered the best.

38. Head of Doryphoros: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - Roman copy of a Greek original - 5th century B.C.

The bronze copy of the Head of Dorphoros was found at Herculaneum in 1753 A.D.

39-46. Figures from the Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, was of the Doric style of architecture and completed in c. 432 B.C. The architects of the temple were Iktinos and Kallikrates. However, it was the sculptor Pheidas, son of Charmides, who was appointed the supervisor of the Athenian statesman Pericles’ building program. Pheidas was most likely the master artist behind the design of the temple and its pediment statues, friezes, and metopes. Within the walls of the structure stood his cult chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue of the goddess which was approximately 40 feet high and dedicated in 438 B.C. (The last known record of the statue was its removal from the Parthenon to Constantinople in c. 400 A.D.)

In either pediment, or gable end, of the Parthenon were sculptures that depicted scenes enacting events relevant to Athena. The figures of the western pediment represented the struggle between Athena and Poseidon for the sovereignty of Athens. The eastern pediment portrayed Athena’s birth from the head of Zeus. The figures were in a state of almost complete preservation until the year 1687 A.D. when, in the war between Turkish regiments and the Venetians, the building was all but destroyed by an explosion of gun powder which had been stored within, What remained of many sculptures was sent to England by agents of Thomas Bruce, then Earl of Elgin. Bruce had obtained a firman (document) from the Turkish government in 1801 A.D. to remove works from the Acropolis, the Athenian citadel which contained other sacred buildings in addition to the Parthenon. The pediment works and other marbles in the British Museum are referred to as “The Elgin Marbles”

The casts are from the Figures from the Eastern pediment, which represented Athena’s birth. The central group is gone and the names of the remaining pieces are speculative. There are many ingenious theories about their identity. The figures, No. 39, are probably the heads of the horses drawing the chariot of Helios, the sun god, as he rises from the waters of Okeanos. The head of the horse on the opposite end of the pediment is probably one of the horses from the chariot of Selene, the moon goddess, sinking into the same waters surrounding the world. The male figure is variously called Theseus, Herakles or Dionysos. The next two seated figures are commonly known as Demeter and Persephone. Next to them sits a solo figure, perhaps Hestia, the goddess of the hearth. She is flanked by an outer pair of two female figures most often associates with Aphrodite who reclines in the lap of her mother, Dione. These pediment pieces are considered by many to be the greatest specimen of Greek art that remain to us.

47. Model of the Acropolis: A model showing the position of the Parthenon and other buildings on the Citadel.

48-53. Reliefs from the Parthenon Frieze: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The Frieze of the Parthenon, approximately 39 feet above the floor, formed a 3 foot 5 inch continuous bas-relief that decorated the upper edge of the outer wall of the cella and its vestibules. It was at a distance of about 9 feet from the outer row of columns. Of its original length, which was approximately 524 feet, just under half is in the British Museum, London.

The visual narration is though to be a representation of part of the Panthenaea, and Athenian festival which paid tribute to Athena. Once a year in Athens at this great feast of the goddess (the event was elaborately celebrated every fourth year), a procession was formed to carry peplos, or garment woven by the maidens of Attica, to the shrine of Athena. The procession presumably started at daybreak and wound up the hill to the Acropolis where the ceremonial garment was dedicated. The west frieze visually depicts the preparations for the event; the procession is then shown in its various stages on the reliefs, which ran from west to east on both sides of the building. The culmination of the narrative, on the east frieze, illustrates the reception of the peplos by a priestess of Athena in the presence of herself and other deities.

54. The Mattei Amazon: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - Greek - 5th century B.C.

Amazons, female warriors and alleged founders of many cities in Asia Minor, are alluded to in Greek literature and mythology, including the Ninth Labour of Herakles. They were also depicted in sculptures, architectural pediments and reliefs. The Mattei Amazon, so called for the family who owned the sculpture, is probably a copy of an original ascribed to Pheidias. It is most likely stood with three other statues of Amazons in the temple at Ephesos which was dedicated to the goddess Artemis. The Mattei Amazon wears a chiton fastened with a belt. The chiton, a tunic of soft linen or wool, was normally worn at knee length for males and at ankle length for females.

55. The Eleusinian Relief: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The town of Eleusis, approximately fourteen mile west of Athens, was the center of worship for the goddess Demeter and her daughter, Kore (later identified as Persephone). Demeter, and earth goddess, was celebrated throughout Greece. However, twice a year secret ceremonies were held at Eleusis to honor her and Kore. “The Eleusinian Mysteries” was a name give to the religions rites in which many citizens of Athens participated.

The votive relief, found near the temple of Demerter in 1859 A.D., probably represents Demeter with Kore (Persephone) inducting the youth Triptolemus into some religious mystery.  The young price, shown receiving ears of corn from Demeter, was, according to myth, imparted with its knowledge of cultivation.

56. Portion of the Frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike, also called Nike Apteros: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The small Ionic temple was sacred to Athena in her manifestation as the Goddess of Victory (Athena Nike). It was dismantled by Turkish soldiers who used the stone as part of a fortification wall. In 1835-1838 A.D. the archaeologist Ludwig Ross and others, during excavations on the Ascropolis, took apart the battery and reconstructed what was left of the temple on its original site.

The portion of the frieze represents a battle scene in which the figures are portrayed in intense action. A common interpretation of that the subject matter of the frieze is the Persian War from which the Greeks emerged victorious.

57-60. Fragments from the Balustrade of the Temple Athena Nike, also called Nike Apteros: Cast of the original in the Acropolis Museum, Athens - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The Temple of Athena Nike was situated on the western bluff of the Acropolis. To insure the safety of worshippers, it was surrounded on three sides by a bastion wall or balustrade. On the outside of this wall and sculptured in high reliefs were figures of Victories (Nikai) in various occupations. Fragment 57 is of a Nike sacrificing or erecting a trophy. Fragment 58, from the south side of the parapet, is of a Nike adjusting her sandal. Fragment 59 is that of a solitary Nike, and Fragment 60, from the north side of the parapet, shows two Nikai leading a bull to sacrifice.

61. Portion of the Frieze from the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - Greek - 5th century B.C.

Apollo, the Greek god of light and music, had many attributes. He was also associated with medicine and was protector of the flocks. Ithe Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia in Arcadia was dedicated to his attribute as the helper (epikourious). The architect of the temple was Iktinous, one of the architects of the Parthenon.

The frieze of this temple adorned the inside rather than the outside of the building. The portion of the frieze displayed represents a battle against the centaurs. It was discovered in 1811 A.D.

62. Aphrodite, Genetrix, commonly called Venus Genetrix: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The statue, found in 1650 A.D., was at first thought to be made by Arkesilaos for the temple of Venus Genetrix built by Julius Caesar.  However, it is probably a copy of the Aphrodite by Alkamenes, a pupil of Pheidias. Aphrodite was the Greek Goddess of Love and Beauty. (Both hands and the apple she holds are modern restorations. Many copyists added objects that were not on the original piece.

In myth Aphrodite was awarded the “apple of discord” by Alexandros (Paris) over her two competitors, Hera and Athena. In return she promised him Helen, the most beautiful of mortal women and wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta. The fulfillment of that promise precipitated the Trojan War.

63. The Rondanini Medusa: Cast of the original in the Glyptothek, Munich - Greek - 5th century B.C.

In myth, the once beautiful Medusa was the only mortal of the three Gorgons, Because of an indiscretion with Poseidon that took place within a temple of Athena, she was cursed by the goddess and changes into a vile serpent-haired creature. Medusa’s gaze turned men to stone. She was beheaded by the hero Perseus. Her offspring from her union with Poseidon were Pegasus and Chrysaor.

The Fifth Century original, a mask, most probably had some religious symbolism and was used for public display. The replica of the mask, positioned on a plaque, gives it the appearance of a relief.

64. Nike (Victory) of Paionios: Cast of the original in the Museum at Olympia - Greek - 5th century B.C.

The Nike of Paionios of Mende in Thrace, and undisputed work by a Fifth Century B.C. sculptor, was discovered near its original site during the German excavations of Olympia in 1875 A.D. It once stood upon a triangular pillar approximately thirty feet high before the eastern face of the Temple of Zeus. (The Slater Museum cast is the only exact copy of this pillar existing.)

Nike, depicted as she alights from the sky and stands aloft, wears a diaphanous chiton (once presumably painted red), which enhances her form. Her himation, or outer cloak, once billowed from behind her.

The inscription records that the statue was dedicated to the Olympian Zeus by the Messenians and Naupaktians with a tithe of the spoils taken from their enemies. It also states that the statue was the work of Paionios of Mende, who was also victorious in making the akroteria upon the Temple of Zeus.

65. Restoration of the Nike (Victory) of Paionios: Cast of the original in the Berlin Museum - Greek - 5th century B.C.

66. Orpheus, Eurydice and Hermes: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - Greek - 5th century B.C.

In a version of an Orpheus myth, Orpheus was the son of Calliope, the muse of epic poetry. He was such an accomplished musician that he entranced all who heard him play. When his wife, Eurydice, was bitten by a serpent and died, Orpheus was overwhelmed with grief. He resolved to seek for her in the nether world and to beg the god, Hades, for her return. His music appeased Charon, the ferryman of the dead, and lulled the monstrous three-headed watchdog, Cerberus. Persephone, moved by Orpheus’ music, entreated Hades for the maiden’s release. Incompliance, the god promised Orpheus the return of his wife upon the condition that once Eurydice was entrusted to him, he did not look back for her until they reached the upper world. Orpheus, fearful that Eurydice was not following, looked back.

The relief portrays Orpheus, Eurydice and the messenger god, Hermes, holding Eurydice’s hand, ready to escort her back to the realm of Hades.

67. Hegeso, a Lady of Athens: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - Greek - 5th century B.C.

Hegeso, wife or possibly a daughter of Proxenus, is represented seated upon a chair. Her feet, poised on a footstool, reputedly indicate her rank. Before her stands an attendant who is dressed in a simple chiton with her hair in a cap. She holds a small case from which Hesego has taken an object, probably a necklace. The object most likely was colored, as were the other details of the relief. However, these colorations were not evident when the gravestone was found in 1870 A.D.
NOTE: In the classical age the elaborate rite of burial ended with the placement of a stone over the grave. It normally commemorated some virtue or trait of the deceased and also served as a site for religious ceremonies. The structure of the stone represented the front of a temple (a pediment supported by two columns), a form used in religious architecture of that time. The size of the stones was, at one time, regulated by law. The gravestones were probably the work of artisans and it is this realization that makes them noteworthy. They show a standard of taste and refinement amongst the populace. The relief normally depicted, usually in a quiet and dignified way, a scene in the life of the deceased. The name of the deceased often was included in the inscription.

68. Medea and the Daughters of Pelias: Cast of the original in the Lateran Museum, Rome - Greek - 5th century B.C.

In a version of the myth pertaining to Jason, the hero of the Argonauts, Jason plotted against his uncle Pelias, the usurper of his kingdom. He beseeched the sorceress Medea to again exercise her supernatural gifts on his behalf. Medea had left her father’s kingdom of Colchis with Jason after she helped him obtain the Golden Fleece.

Agreeing to carry out Jason’s wish, Medea ingratiated herself with the daughters of Pelias. She told them of her power to restore youth to the aged and demonstrated that power by making an old ram supposedly appear as a lamb. This feat was accomplished by cutting the old ram’s body in pieces and boiling the parts while she pronounced magical incantations and administered youth giving herbs. Persuaded that their aged father would become youthful through Madea’s craft, the daughters killed him. However, when they had performed the deed, Medea refused to speak the life-giving word(s). The revenge completed, Medea fled with Jason.

Medea is shown on the relief (found in 1814 A.D.) holding her coveted box while the daughters of Pelias make the necessary preparations for their father’s demise. The tragic moment in the tale is thus represented.

69. The Farnese Hera: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - Roman copy of a Greek original - style of 5th century B.C.

The bust of The Farnese Hera (Farnese is the name of the family who once owned the piece) is thought by some sources to be an adaptation of the colossal chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue of Hera by Polykleitos for the Heraion at Argos in c. 420 B.C. However, it is also speculates that the sculpture has similar style characteristics to those works associated with the school of Kritios and Nesiotes and may, therefore, be an idealization of a different goddess.

70. Head of a Goddess: Cast of the original in the Berlin Museum - copy of a Greek original - 5th century B.C.

If the original was of marble, then the pupils of the eyes, other facial features and, most likely, the goddess’ hair and headband were probably painted. In the Fifth Century B.C., the application of color was also used to render a natural or realistic effect. However, the resemblance of flesh on the sculptures of females was apparently painted very fair, presumably in a light tome, in marked contrast to that of their male counterparts whose flesh was supposedly in a warm brownish red.

71. Youth Pouring Oil into his Hand or Oil Pourer: Cast of the original in the Glyptothk, Munich - 5th century B.C.

Before exercising, the Greek athlete normally anointed himself. The oil, stored in a small container, was poured drop by drop into the athlete’s hand and then rubbed into his body. The youth represents a prototype of many characteristics inherent in classical works. Portrayed in arrested motion, the figure is linear in pose. The hand holding the oil is raised above his head. The weight of the body is shifted slightly (a characteristic that is accentuated in other works and is referred to as the “contrapposto pose” in which the contour of the figure is reminiscent of an “S” curve).

72. Monument of Dexileus: Cast of the original in the Kerameikos Museum, Athens - 4th century B.C.

The inscription states that the age of Dexileus was twenty and that he was killed in the Corinthian War, B.C. 394. Ironically, he is represented in the moment of triumph over his foe who tries to ward off with his sword the thrust of Dexileus’ lance.

Discovered in 1863 A.D., parts of the horse’s harness were apparently metal.

73. Eirene and Ploutos: Cast of the original in the Glyptothek, Munich - Roman copy of Greek original - 4th century B.C.

The sculpture of Eirene , the goddess of peace, and Ploutos, the god of wealth and plenty, is believed to have stood as a public monument in the Agora, in Athens, where a cult of the goddess existed. The uplifted arm of the goddess reputedly held a staff upon which she leaned. The vase that Ploutos holds is an incorrect addition. (On coins and other copies the god holds a horn of plenty.) The head of Ploutos is an addition and did not originally belong to the body.

NOTE: Many of the works from which the casts have been taken have undergone restoration of missing parts.

74. Athena Giustiniani (Minerva): Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - Roman copy of Greek original - 4th century B.C.

A native of Corinth and a contemporary of Praxiteles, the sculptor Euphranor was also renowned as a painter. In myth Athena, (Giustiniani is the name of the family who owned the work in the 17^th Century A.D.), the goddess of wisdom and defensive war, was born fully-grown and armed from the head of Zeus. The aegis (reputedly a copyist’s addition on the Giustiniani version), with its representation of the head of Medusa, was one of the war attributes associated with the goddess. The representation of the Gorgon’s head was evident on the great chryselephantine image of Athena Parthenos made by Pheidias for the Parthenon in the Fifth Century B.C. Apparently it became one of the symbols of the goddess that was emulated in later works.

75. Eros Centocelle: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - Roman copy of a Greek original - 4th century B.C.

Praxiteles, one of the most renowned sculptors of the Fourth Century B.C., was famous among the ancients. The Eros Centocelle is considered to be one of several copies of an Eros the sculptor made in his youth. In myth, Eros is normally alluded to as the son of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, and Ares, the god of war. The original sculpture with its serene repose probably was depicted with wings.

76. Artemis of Gabii: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - Roman copy of Greek original - 4th century B.C.

The sculpture Artemis (Diana), found in the ruins of Gabii in 1792 A.D., was thought to be an adaptation of Praxiteles' famous statue of Artemis Brauronia erected in Athens in c. 346 B.C. However, Pausanias noted a statue of a young Artemis dresses in a short chiton in a sanctuary at the Antikyra by the same sculptor. The Artemis of Gabii and the Artemis of Versailles both depict the huntress in a short chiton and sandals, clasping a cloak over her shoulder. It is probable, therefore, that these two works are variants of Praxiteles' Artemis of Antikyra.

77. Head of Asklepios or Asklepios Blacas: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - 4th century B.C.

Asklepios, the Greek god of healing and medicine, has a sanctuary at Epidauros in his honor. Snakes, his symbol, were allowed to roam in the vicinity of his temples. When aa new temple was built to commemorate the god, a snake from Epidauros was transported to the new site. (Asklepios was worshipped by the Romans as Aesculapius.)

78. Demeter (?) from Knidos: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - 4th century B.C.

In myth, Demeter neglected her cultivation of the earth and, therefore, caused its destruction. She was distraught because her daughter, Kore (i.e. Persephone), was abducted by Hades to the nether world.

The anguished mother, seated upon a throne, wears a matron’s veil. (It is speculated that the piece may have originally been accompanied by a standing figure, presumably Kore. It is also speculated that, weary in her search, she sits alone.)

The sculpture of Demeter(?), found in her sanctuary an Knidos in c. 1858 A.D., had been observed in 1812 A.D. by English travelers. The inherent pathos of the figure – the deep set eyes and other facial characteristics – are often associated with works of the Fourth Century B.C. sculptor Skopas. However, the work is often attributed to other sculptors and some sources date the origin of the work to later centuries.

 79. Satyr or Marble Faun: Cast of the original in the Capitoline Museum, Rome - 4th century B.C.

Praxiteles, one of the most revered sculptors of antiquity, apparently made numerous statues of satyrs. In myth, satyrs were followers of the wine god, Dionysos. The Satyr is depicted in a relaxed manner with a flute in his hand.

“Marble Faun”, a popular name for the statue, was derived from the title of a work by the 19th Century American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne. He presumably used the Roman name for the votary. (In Roman mythology Faunus was a Roman nature god and fauns, his followers, had similar attributes to those of the Greek satyrs.)

80. Dionysos: Cast of the original in the National Museum of the Terme, Rome - 4th century B.C.

The statue of a youthful Dionysos, the Greek god of the vine, was found in c. 1881 A.D. in Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli. In a version of a Dionysian myth, Dionysos was the son of Zeus and a mortal princess, Semele, daughter of the King of Thebes.

A nebris, or fawn skin is tied over Dionysos’ right shoulder, an attribute of his origin as a nature deity.

81. The Aphrodite (Venus) of Capua: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - 4th century B.C.

In myth, Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, is coupled with Ares, the tempestuous war god, by whom she had a son, Eros. The Capuan Aphrodite (the sculpture was found in the 1700’s A.D. in an amphitheater of Capua, and ancient city north of Naples) is one of several copies of a Fourth Century B.C. work that was erected in Corinth and is attributed to Skopas. Some sources attribute the work to Praxiteles or his school.

The arms of the sculpture were restored in 1820 A.D. The original Aphrodite statue presumably held Ares’ shield as a mirror while her left foot rests on his helmet. The diadem (the royal headband of Roman times) is a copyist’s addition.

82. Psyche (?) of Capua: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - 4th century B.C.

The torso, often referred to as Aphrodite, was found in the amphitheater of Capua in the 18^th Century, A.D. with statue No. 81. It is possible that the angular head was once part of a pediment. However, it is also a probability that the smooth surface on the head and arms indicate a practice of the sculptor, at that time, to combine different pieces of marble on one statue. Thus, it is also feasible that the figure was composed of several pieces, now lost. Given the square smooth surfaces on the side of the trunk. It is also speculated that the figure was joined with Eros.

Psyche, from the Greek word “psyche” which translated means “Breath – principle of the soul,” was also the name of a princess off Roman mythology with whom Cupid fell in love. The story of Cupid and Psyche was written by a Latin writer Apuleius in the Second Century, A.D.

83. Sappho (?): Cast of the original in the Museum at Naples - 4th century B.C.

A bronze head found at Herculaneum in Italy in 1758 A.D., the sculpture is thought to be a variant of an imagined likeness of Sappho, poetess of Lesbos (7^th Century B.C.) by the sculptor Silanion of Athens (a known Fourth Century B.C. portraitist).

84. Portrait of Socrates: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - 4th century B.C.

The Athenian philosopher Socrates (c. 496-399 B.C.) lived during the Periclean Age, a period referred to as the “Golden Age of Greece”. He emphasized the necessity to question generalities. The question, “What is it?” is synonymous with the Socratic method of inquiry. However, he reputedly never wrote. One of the sources who wrote about Socrates was his former pupil, Plate, who became a teacher of Aristotle, who, in turn, was one of the teachers of Alexander the great.

85. The Ludovisi Ares: Cast of the original in the National Museum of the Terme, Rome - Roman copy of Greek bronze 4th century B.C.

Formerly in the Boncampagni-Ludovisi Collection in Rome, the statue os the war god, Ares, is conjectures to be a scaled version of a colossal bronze Ares by Skopas, a contemporary of Praxiteles. (The work is currently attributed to other sculptors, most notable Lysippos or his school.)

The poet Homer refers to Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, as a manslaughtering, bloodstained, stormer of great walls. In myth, Eros is often referred to as the son of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, by Ares.

86. Base of the Column from the Temple of Artemus at Ephesos: Cast of the original in the British Museum, London - Greek 4th century B.C.

In myth, the Greek goddess Artemis was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and the twin sister of the god Apollo. A Sixth Century B.C. temple dedicated to the goddess at Ephesos, a famous city in Ionia, was replaced when the original sanctuary burned down in c.356 B.C. It was called by the ancients one of the seven wonders of the world. In the visible portion of the displayed column, a female figure stands between two male figures. On the right is probably Hermes, the messenger god, who may be identified by the staff he carries (kerykeion), while the winged figure with the sword to the left of the female figure is probably Thantos, the god of death.

It is written that the sculptor Skopas worked at Ephesos and some sources attribute the original of this column base to him.

87. Sophocles: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - Roman copy of Greek original, 4th century B.C.

In c. 340 B.C. bronze statues of three great Fifth Century B.C. tragic poets, Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles, were erected in the Theater of Dionysos at Athens. Sophocles, the writer of numerous plays (reputedly over 100 of which very few survive) is known as the author of King Oedipus, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.

The statue apparently was not intended to be an exact likeness of the poet. Instead it was meant to embody his idealization as a skilled dramatic force. He is depicted wrapped in a Doric himation, a rectangular cloth normally of wool, which accentuates the poets’ dynamic form.

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93. Silenos and the Infant Dionysos: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - 4th Century B.C.

In myth, old, with Silenos, replete with pointed ears and tail and reminiscent of a satyr, was Dionysos’ tutor. He is depicted in a graceful leaning pose, caring from his charge. Stylistically, the work is attributed to Lysippos.

94. Aeschines: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - 4th Century B.C.

A rival of Demosthenes, Aeschines was also an orator who was a zealous supporter of Philip of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the great. In the late Fourth Century b.C. he reportedly started a school of oratory on the Isle of Rhodes.

95. A Maenad or Dancing Bacchante: Cast of the original in the Berlin Museum - 4th century B.C.

In myth, a maenas was a female follower of the god Dionysos who celebrated in the wild, supposed maddening rituals of his cult.

It is speculates that the sculpture may have been mistakenly interpreted and is more apt to be a depiction of a hired player of fluted whose music inspired dance.

96. Head of a Boxer or The Pugilist Satyrus: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 4th century B.C.

Found at Olympia in 1880 A.D., the head at one time had been attached to a now lost figure. It is reputed to be a portrait of a victorious boxer named Satyrus, probably sculpted by Silanion. The eyes of the sculpture were, at one time, inserted with semi-precious materials and the lips inlaid with bronze.

97. Head of the "Farnese Herkales": Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - 4th century B.C.

The sculptor Lysippos reportedly made a series of the twelve mythological Labours of Herakles for a Greek temple. However, he was also noted in antiquity for two colossal bronze versions of the hero poised in a meditative moment after the completion of his arduous tasks. (One was reputedly seated, the other depicted in a weary stance as he rested against his club.) The “Farnese” type (Farnese being the name of the family who owned the work) is considered the largest version of the replicas that exist. (The head of the Farnese Herakles is from Glykon’s re-creation.)

98. Apollo Belvedere: Cast of the original in the Vatican Museum, Rome - 4th century B.C.

The term Belvedere is derived from Cortile del Belvedere the name of the court in the Vatican where the work was first installed in c. 1503-1513 A.D. The god Apollo is depicted with a quiver on his back. He probably held a bow in his left hand and a laurel branch in his right, attributed of his role as protector and healer. Around his neck and arm he wards a chlamys, a squared cloth worn by Greek men. The tree trunk is a copyist’s addition. It is speculates that the original work was by Leochares; some sources date the work much later.

NOTE: The archeological discovery was made in the late 15th Century A.D.

99. Mother Parting from her Child: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 4th Century B.C.

Fourth Century B.C. gravestones were normally carved in high relief when compared to those of the Fifth Century B.C. Moreover, toward the end of the Fourth Century B.C., a law was enacted forbidding elaborate stones on graves.

(For further information, see No. 67)

100. A Wife Bidding Farewell to her Husband: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 4th Century

(For further information on Greek gravestones, see No. 67.)

101. Epicrates of Athens: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 4th century B.C.

(For further information on Greek gravestones, see No. 67.)

102. Niobe and her Youngest Daughter: Cast of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence - 4th Century B.C.

In myth, Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus, gloated with exaggerated self pride (hubris) because of her accomplishments, She married Amphion, the King of Thebes, by whom she had fourteen children, seven sons and seven daughters. (Homer claimed the number of children to be twelve, Hesiod twenty. However in later centuries the number of children attributed to Niobe was fourteen.) As a powerful queen, Niobe called upon the people of Thebes to pay homage to her; she insolently boasted that she was as worthy of worship as the goddess Leto, mother of Apollo and Artemis. Leto, angered by Niobe’s presumption, demanded retribution and urged Apollo and Artemis to punish the queen. Thus, the archer and the huntress with their never failing arrows slew all of Niobe’s children and the grieving Niobe wept herself into stone, perpetually wet with tears.

The sculpture of Niobe and her Youngest Daughter was part of a celebrated group of antiquity, which represented the distracted mother and her children fleeing from the deadly arrows. The statue portrays a desperate Niobe attempting to protect her youngest daughter who clings to her in fright.

The sculptor of the Niobe group, the number of pieces which compromised the original display, how they were arranged and where they were situated for viewing are all assumptions. Many sources date the original statue of Niobe and her Youngest Daughter c. 300 B.C./ while others date the work in the Second or First Century B.C. Pliny stated that the Niobe group was by Praxiteles or Skopas. That contention is also debated The most complete Niobe group is in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

107. Relief of a Chariot Racer: Cast of the original in the Acropolis Museum, Athens - 3rd Century B.C.

Chariot racing, an Olympic event, was referred to in the Iliad of Homer. The chariot race was the first contest of the funeral games for Patroklos, companion of Achilles. Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and defensive war, was one of the deities who watches and intervened in the competition. Her favored Diomedes won the first prize.

108. Menander: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - 3rd Century B.C.

The poet Menander (c. 343-291 B.C.) was reputedly a prolific writer of comedies (“New Comedy”) whose plots centered around the lives of the wealthy of Athens in his time.

The traveler Pausanias recorded that a bronze statue of the Hellenistic poet was displayed in the theater of Dionysos in Athens. He attributed the work to the sons of Praxiteles, Kephisodotos and Timarchos. Menander dies in c. 291 B.C. and it is speculated that the original tribute sculpture was erected shortly after his death.

109. Niobid Chiaramonti - One of the Daughters of Niobe: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - 3rd Century B.C.

110. The Wrestlers: Cast of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence - 3rd century B.C.

In one version of the myth, the origin of wrestling was attributed to the hero Theseus. In Greek times there were two forms of the sport, namely, “upright” and “Ground” wrestling. However, Theseus is also considered to be the inventor of “pankration”, a sport that combined both boxing and wrestling and was considered by many to be the most hazardous of all Olympic events.

The Uffizi group is a depiction of “kato pankration”, one of the two types of the sport in which action continued on the ground and was the form used in the Olympic games.

It is speculates that in the pankration all the holds admissible in a wrestling match and all rules applicable to boxing applied.

The sculpture, often erroneously referred to as “The Wrestlers”, shows one of the pankratiasts on top of the other. He holds his opponent with one hand and is ready to strike a blow with the other.

The statue was discovered with the Niobe group in Rome in 1853 A.D. The antique heads of the original wrestlers do not belong to their respective bodies. It is conjectured that the heads once belonged to statues that represented Niobe’s sons.

111. Demonsthenes: Cast of the original in the Vatican Museum, Rome - 3rd century B.C.

The original statue of the orator and statesman Demosthenes (c. 385-322 B.C.) was reputedly placed in the Agora of Athens in c. 280 B.C. It was Demosthenes who had attempted to incite the Athenians to rally against the invasion of Philip of Macedonia. He also attempted to form a confederacy with other Greek city-states in an effort to repel Philip’s armies.

A primary source on Demosthenes was the writer Plutarch (c. 46-120 A.D.), author of The Lives of the Nobel Grecians and Romans. He recorded that Demosthenes has suffered from physical infirmities and a weak voice but overcame these obstacles through self-determination and rigorous training.

The statue depicts the man Demosthenes rather than an idealization of him – a characteristic of Hellenistic portrait sculpture. The original work portrayed the orator with his hands clasped.

112. Head of Demosthenes: Cast of the Roman copy of a Greek original - Probably a variant of the original bronze attributed to Polyeuktos in c. 280 B.C.

The portrait bust is one of many late adaptations of the orator Demosthenes. The work is probably a variant of the original bronze attributed to Polyeuktos in c. 280 B.C.

(For further information, refer to No. 111)

113. The Pseudo-Seneca: Cast of the original in the Archaeological Museum, Naples - 3rd-2nd century B.C.

Found at Herculaneum in 1754 A.D., the portrait sculpture called “Seneca” was erroneously named after the Roman philosopher and writer who died c. 65 A.D. Numerous theories exist as to the subject of the original portrait. For example, the work is sometimes referred to as a portrait of the Greek poet Aristophanes. Other sources claim it to be of the Greek poet Hesiod. The portrait bust was one of the most copied works of antiquity.

114. Dying Gaul: Cast of the original in the Capitoline Museum, Rome - 3rd century B.C.  Seal on lower right edge of base:  Leopoldo Malpieri - Formatore Roma

The Gauls, from a vast territory that now includes France and Belgium, were of Celtic stock. In the early Third Century B.C., bands of Gallic tribes attempted to invade Macedonia and Greece. Another group entered Asia Minor and settled in an area referred to at Galatia where they menaced and pillaged other inhabitants. These “Gauls” were defeated by Attalos I (c. 241-197 B.C.) of Pergamon.

Pergamon (Mysia) became the last bastion of Hellenism in Asia Minor. When Attalos I defeated the Gauls, or Galatians, he declared himself king and had commemorative sculptures erected to proclaim his victories.

As a victory monument, the Dying Gaul is dramatically depicted in mute resignation as he momentarily rests upon his oval shield, his trumpet nearby. He manages to keep his body upright by the temporary support of his hand. (The sword is speculated to be a copyist’s addition.) The original is sometimes ascribed to the sculptor Epigonos.

The cropped hair, the mustache, the shaven face (probably denoting the Dying Gaul as a chieftain) and the gold torque or ring around the neck were distinctive characteristics of the “barbaric” Gauls.

115. Gaul and His Wife or Ludovisi Group: Cast of the original in the National Museum of the Terme, Rome - 3rd century B.C.

The original work of the Gaul and His Wife was one of the victory monuments erected by Attalos I of Pergamon (c. 241-197 B.C.) to commemorate his defeat of the Gauls. (For further information, refer to No. 114)

The work portrays the Gallic chieftain who, after mortally wounding his wife, plunges the sword into his own chest and defiantly succumbs to death rather than captivity.

The commemorative monument is often referred to as the “Ludovisi Group” because it once belonged to the Boncampagni-Ludovisi collection. As with most marble copes, restorations are numerous. For example, the Gaul’s right arm, most of his sword, and most of his wife’s left arm are restorations, It is also conjectured that the Gaul and his Wife were the focal point of a group which included the Dying Gaul (No. 114) and three other sculptures that were situates upon a round base on the Pergamon Acropolis. However, many sources refute the claim.

116. The Beautiful Head from Pergamon: Cast of the original in the Staatliche Museum, Berlin.

Conjectured to be a fragmented head from a marble statue, “The Beautiful Head” was discovered near the Altar of Zeus at Pergamon. (Refer to Nos. 120, 121.)

The head may have been part of the altar’s frieze. The work is probably an idealization of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty.

117. The Nike (Victory) of Samothrace: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - 2nd century B.C.

The statue of The Nike was found in pieces on its original site near a sanctuary on the Island of Samothrace in 1863 A.D. It originally stood on a pedestal of a darker stone carved in the form of a ship’s prow and was reputedly placed in the upper part of a two-tiered pool.

Designed to commemorate a naval victory, the imposing figure of Nike is depicted with outstretched wings as she alights onto the ship, her transparent garments fluttering in the sea breeze. The work is often referred to as “Winged Victory”.

It is speculated that the statue may have been erected by the Rhodians as a tribute to their victories over Syria in the late Third, early Second Centuries B.C. It is possible, therefore, that the work may be by a Rhodian sculptor, possibly Pythokritos.

118. Aphrodite from Melos: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - 3rd-2nd century B.C.

Found in 1820 A.D. on the Island of Melos, the Aphrodite is commonly called the “Venus de Milo” and is one of the best known and most admired works of ancient sculptures.

The statue of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, is based on a Fourth Century predecessor. As was typical of Greek sculpture, the statue was composed of pieces. Two block of marble joined above the drapery comprised the figure. Similarly the arms were fashioned separately and then joined. It is conjectures that the left arm was raised and the right arm probably crossed the figure. The original statue of the goddess was adorned with metal earrings.

119. Seated Boxer: Cast of the original in the National Museum of the Terme, Rome - 2nd-1st century B.C.

In one version of the myth, the god Apollo invented boxing. The sport, described in Homer’s Iliad, was one of the contests held at the funeral games of Patroklos, companion of Achilles. In antiquity boxers applies straps of soft hide over the first knuckles of their fingers, wrapped the strips around their hands, and then laced and tied them on their arms. In later periods, these himantes (soft straps) were supplemented with layer of hard leather, which was cushioned and bound over the knuckles. By the Fourth Century B.C. boxers no longer wound the straps but instead a pre-wrapped type of “Glove” called oxeis himantes or sharp thongs; these are the type reproduced on the statue of the “Seated Boxer”. In Roman times the oxeis himantes developed into formidable weapons named the “caestus” which were strengthened with lead and iron.

A disputed work, the sculpture of the bronze boxer was found in a state of perfect preservation when discovered in Rome in 1885 A.D. Many sources attribute the work to Apollonios, son of Nestor, the sculptor of The Belvedere Torso. The basis for his claim was that the sculptor’s signature was supposedly evident on one of the boxer’s thongs, However, the other sources refute that claim as pure speculation and suggest that the work was in all probability made before the sculptor was known to have been active.

120-121. Slabs from the Eastern Section of the Gigantomachy Frieze of the Altar of Zeus from Pergamon: Cast of the original in the Staatliche Museum, Berlin - 2nd century B.C.

The Altar of Zeus was erected by Eumenes II, King of Pergamon, as a memorial to his father, Attalos I. (For further information, refer to Nos. 114 and 115.) The immense building was not only dedicated to Zeus, but also to Athena, the goddess of victory, who became the patroness and protector of Pergamon,

Located upon a terrace neat the top of the citadel, the altar was erected approximately 700 feet above the city’s marketplace. The pedestal walls of the monument were decorated with a frieze of sculptural relief that was 7 ½ feet wide and approximately 400 feet long. A majestic staircase led to the frieze.

It is generally acknowledged that the subject of the frieze is the battle of the Olympian gods and giants, the offspring of Ge (Earth). In myth, Ge sent her brood, a dread-inspiring monstrous lot, to scale the heavens and usurp the Olympians. However, the identification of all the sculptured figures represented on the frieze and the sources from which the visual imagery is derived is speculative.

In the Zeus group from the east frieze, the powerful and triumphant father battles with three giants. To the god’s right, a fallen giant has been struck through his leg with a thunderbolt. One of the two giants to the left of Zeus is a serpent-footed figure sometimes referred to as Porphrion. His attempt to release a serpent is thwarted by an eagle(?) of Zeus.

In the Athena group, the goddess is represented in active turbulence and drags and pulls a winged giant, often referred to as Alkyoneus, by his hair.

The agonized Ge, visualized by the fruits of nature nearby and by her position half out of the earth, beseeches mercy from the pitiless goddess who is crowned by Nike in token of her victory.

Although the altar frieze was worked upon by numerous sculptors, many of whose names have survived, it has been ascertained that the overall design was the work of one master. Discovered by Humann(???) in excavations undertaken in 1878-1886 A.D. by the German government, the sculpture from The Altar of Zeus embodies the characteristics inherent in Hellenistic art.

122. The Borghese Warrior: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - 2nd-1st century B.C.

Borghese was the name of a prominent Roman family of collectors who owned this work which was found in the old city of Antium in the 17^th Century A.D. Purchased by Napoleon of France in the early 1800’s A.D., the sculpture is inscribed by Agasis, son of Dositheos of Ephesos, on its support. It is conjectured that Agasias was influenced by the Fourth Century B.C. sculptor Lysippos. The linear quality of Lysippo’s work, however, has been transformed into dramatic action. The warrior, poised in space, is depicted as he protects himself from attack with his shield, probably bronze and at one time attaches to the arm guard.

123. Eros (Cupid) and Dolphin: Cast of the original in the Museum of Naples - 1st century B.C.

In myth, Eros is the son of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, and the war god, Ares. The winged statue of the god intertwined with the swift, playful dolphin was designed to decorate a fountain.

124. Klio, The Muse of History: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - 2nd century B.C.

In one version of the myth, the muses were the daughters of Mnemosyne (memory) and Zeus, the king of the Olympian gods. Their sacred gift inspired mortals in artistic and intellectual endeavors. They are also associated with the god Apollo, their leader in songs and dances at important mythological celebrations.

In early accounts, the number of muses varies. It was the poet Hesiod who gave them names and recorded their number as nine. Their specific attributes, however, were not denoted until Roman times. Klio (Kleio) was designated as the muse of history. In art she is normally seated in a chair and holds either a scroll or sundial in her hands.

125. The Satyr Plating the Scabellum (?) or "Invitation to the Dance": Cast of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence - 2nd century B.C.

The satyr, a follower of the wine god Dionysos, and often represented with attributes of a goat, was a popular subject for sculpture in Hellenistic times.

It is speculated that The Satyr Playing the Scabellum (sometimes referred to as the kroupezion) was once part of a sculptured pair that included a smiling seated nymph. With a tilt of his head, the satyr invites the nymph to accompany his musical refrain with her dance.

126-127. Dancing Women from the Theater of Dionysos: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 2nd century B.C.

The sculptural reliefs were once part of the balustrade, which separated the orchestra from the seats of the audience in the Dionysian theater.

The dancers, portrayed in flowing rhythmic drapery, are representative of what was subsequently termed “neo-Attic” sculpture.

128. The Belvedere Torso: Cast of the original in the Vatican, Rome - 1st century B.C.

The Belvedere Torso was named after Cortile del Belvedere in the Vatican where the sculpture was first installed by Pope Clement VII (1523-1534 A.D.) and was one of the few ancient statues discovered during the Renaissance. The artist Michelangelo reputedly referred to the torso as his “teacher”.

The fragmented statue, seated upon an animal skin, had been identified by various mythological names, including Herakles, Ares, Prometheus, Marysas, and Polyphemus.

The inscription at the base of the sculpture, written in First Century B.C. script, ascribes the work to Apollonios, son of Nestor. Because of its anatomical excellence and the torsion exemplified in the torso with its powerful compacted musculature, it is conjectures that the work is a copy of an earlier school. Therefore, it is suggested that the sculptor

S signature may be a copyist’s addition. However, it is also feasible that the torso was an innovative work of its own time and Apollonios a precursor.

129. Julius Caesar: Cast of the original in the Capitoline Museum, Rome. 1st century B.C.

In the year 49 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar's crossing of the Rubican River of northern Italy with his troops was regarded by the Roman Senate as an act of war. Through a series of successful campaigns, Caesar became the "colossus" of the Empire by 45 B.C. His opposition, Brutus and Cassius among them, fearing that Caesar would restore the monarchy, conspired against him. The conqueror was slain on March 15 (the Ides of March) in 44 B.C.

130. Cicero: Cast of the original in the Capitoline Museum, Rome -  1st century B.C.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (c. 106-43 B.C.), a political adversary of Julius Caesar and subsequently of Marc Anthony, was considered by many to be the greatest orator of antiquity after the Athenian Demosthenes. A scholar of Greek studies, Cicero was also a prolific writer. His writing included poetry, volumes on philosophy, rhetoric, essays, letters and works on theology and grammar, in addition to his written orations.

131. Chair of a Priest of Dionysos from the Theater of Dionysos, Athens: Cast of the original in the National Museum, Athens - 1st Century A.D.

At the annual festival honoring Dionysos, selected plays from competing writers were performed in the Dionysian theater. The audience, estimated to be in the thousands, sat on benches, It is speculated that a few marble chairs were situated in the front of the theater for the priests of Dionysos and other dignitaries.
In the early Fifth Century B.C., an outdoor theater built of stone and dedicated to the wine god Dionysos replaced an earlier one on the southern slope of the Acropolis. That Dionysian theater was redesigned in the Fourth Century B.C. and subsequently modified. Thus, the existing theater includes parts which are of Fifth Century B.C. origin and modifications attributed to the First and Third Centuries A.D.
The original chair, found in 1862 A.D. in the excavations of the theater, has inscriptions and pictorial designs that were emblematic of the wine god.

132. Orestes and Elektra: Cast of the original in the Museum of the Terme, Rome - 1st century A.D.

The figurative group, according to an inscription on the original work, is by Menelaos, pupil of Stephanos. Menelaos was one of several Greek artisans who lived in early Rome and created sculptures based upon Greek legends for a receptive Roman patronage. The works, eclectic in style, often incorporates characteristics associates with Greek sculptures from previous centuries.
The figures portrayed in the Menelaos group have been variously named. However, many sources have identified the subjects depicted as Elektra and her brother, Orestes, the two remaining children of Agamemnon, King of Argos, and his wife, Clytemnestra. A source that incorporated the legend of Agamemnon's return from Troy was the Fifth Century B.C. writer Aeschylus.
Aeschylus wrote a trilogy, Oresteia, first performed in c. 458 B.C. In the second play, referred to as Choephoroe or Libation Bearers, Orestes is reunited with his sister, Elektra, at their father's grave and vows to avenge Agamemnon's death. This sculpture possibly depicts that moment.

133. The Laokoön: Cast of the original in the Vatican Museum, Rome - 1st century A.D.

In myth, the Trojan Priest, Laokoön, warned the people of Troy not to bring within their walls a colossal wooden horse, which they assumed was a departing gift from the Greeks (Achaeans). As Laokoön and his son(s) made a sacrifice at the altar, two hissing sea serpents enveloped them in their folds and crushed them to a miserable death.

The Trojans, interpreting the catastrophe as an omen, allowed the fatal horse into their citadel.

One of the early sources of the Laokoön legend was the Eighth Century B.C. writer, Arktinos. In that version, Laokoön had only one son. The source most frequently referred to, however, is an epic poem entitled the Aeneid by the Roman writer Virgil.

The Laokoön was found in 1506 A.D. in the Esquiline, Rome. A description of the piece have been written by Pliny, the Elder, He inferred that the Laokoön was preferable to all other works in pictorial or plastic arts and also recorded the names of the Rhodian sculptors who made the piece. It is speculated that one of the people who viewed and possibly restored the piece was the Renaissance artist Michelangelo.

NOTE: There is a similarity between the anguished expression of the priest and that of the giant Alkyoneus (?) on the Athena group of the Pergamon frieze. Refer to No. 121.

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134. Saint George: Cast of the original in the Museo Nazionale, Florence - 15th Century

The Florentine Conato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, called Donatello (c. 1386-1466 A.D.), is considered to be one of the greatest sculptors of the Renaissance. He was noted for his intense, often painfully realistic, character portrayals. The sculpture of Saint George, “the soldier-saint”, was commissioned by the armorer’s guild for the Saint George Tabernacle in the Church of Or San Michele, Florence. It is speculated that the statue once wore a helmet and armor and held bronze weapons.

On the statue’s pedestal Donatello carves in relief a scene of Saint George killing the dragon.

135. David: Cast of the original in the Museo Nazionale, Florence - 15th century

 In the early Renaissance, the city of Florence, Italy was a center os intellectual and artistic activity. By mid-15^th Century (c. 1434 A.D.) the Medici family began its lengthy rule of the city. Throughout their reign the Medicis subsidized the development of the arte, philosophy and the humanities.

It is speculated that Donatello’s David was commissioned by Cosimo de’Medici, an earlier patron of the arts; originally it stood in the Medici Palace, After the collapse of the Medici regime, the statue was moved to the Palazzo Vecchio.

Donatello’s version of David, taken from a biblical allegory, is depicted in a relaxed pose after his triumphant defeat of the giant Goliath With one foot firmly placed on the helmeted giant’s head, David stands with a rock in one hand and a sword in the other.

136. Reliefs from the Cantoria or Choir Gallery: Cast of the original in the Cathedral Museum of Florence - 15th century

Luca della Robbia (. 1400-1482 A.D.) was a contemporary of the artists Ghiberti and Donatello. The writer Georgion Vasari, one of the sources on artists of the Italian Renaissance, contended that della Robbia was contracted for the Cantoria of the Cathedral of Florence because of his recommendation by Vieri de/Medici, a popular Florentine citizen.

Executed in high relief, the ten segments of the della Robbia Cantoria portray with charming simplicity an naturalness a heavenly choir; they stand on clouds while playing musucal instruments, singing and dancing. The scene represents a visual translation of Psalm 150 which was sung at the completion of High Mass. As the psalm begins and ends with “Alleluia”, the first and tenth reliefs depict boys singing “Alleluia”.

A second choir gallery of the cathedral was also sculpted by Donatello.

137. The Visitation: Cast of the original in the Church of San Giovanni fuor Civitas, Pistoia - 15th century

The Luca della Robbia sculpture of the Virgin Mary visiting Saint Elizabeth (Elisabetta) is one of the few three-dimensional works by the artist. The original sculpture is a white enameled terra cotta, which shows traces of gilding. The upper and lower halves of the bodies were cast separately.

The standing Virgin who wears a kerchief, and St. Elizabeth, who is depicted kneeling, reputedly represent a visual translation of a passage from the Gospel according to St. Luke. The dignity and simplicity of the sculpture, its skillful execution and the tenderness portrayed, are traits associates with the artist’s work.

138. David: Cast of the original in the Museo Nazionale, Florence - 15th century

Andrea di Michele di Francesco de’Cione (c. 1435-1488 A.D.) called Verrocchio, was surnamed after his first master, Giuliano de’Verrocchio, a noted goldsmith. After his long apprenticeship of the craft, Verrocchio practiced the technical aspects which emphasized minuteness and meticulous concern for detail. His early training influenced his later work as a painter and sculptor.

It is speculated that Verrocchio’s bronze David, was originally commissioned by one of the Medicis. His allegorical David, depicted as a confident Roman youth with drawn sword, reputedly symbolizes the liberty of the young Florentine Republic. Unlike many sculptors, Verrocchio did his own casting. His love of detail is evident in David’s attire, which was originally gilded.

Before his death in 1488 A.D., Verrocchio had finished the clay model for a commissioned equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleone. The casting was completed by Alessandra Leopardi and the statue erected in 1496 A.D. near the Church of SS, Giovanni e Paolo at Venice.

NOTE: Part of Verrocchio’s later fame was due to the fact that he was the teacher of the artists Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino.

139. Portrait of a Young Lady: Cast of the original in the Museo Nazionale, Florence - 15th Century

The original portrait is attributed to the artist Verrocchio (c. 1435-1488 A.D.)

140. Pietro Mellini: Cast of the original in the Louvre, Paris - 15th Century

The original marble portrait of the Florentine merchant Pietro Mellini is considered to be the first signed work of the artist and architect Benedetto da Majano (c. 1422-1497 A.D.) Mellini is portrayed realistically; his wrinkled brow and lined face are modeled in sharp contrast to the delicate embroidery pattern of the garment that he wears.

A benefactor of the church, Mellini also commissioned the sculptor to design a pulpit for the Franciscan church, Santa Croce, in Florence, depicting the life of St. Francis.

141. Pieta: Cast of the original in St. Peter's Vatican, Rome - 15th Century

Michelangelo di Ludovico Buonarroti Simoni, who called himself Michelangelo Buonarroti (c. 1475-1564 A.D.) was one of the supreme geniuses of the world whose legacy of achievements seem almost beyond the power of one man to accomplish. In essence, his works typify the ideal of the Renaissance man. As a poet, he has left sonnets; as a painter, the Sistine Chapel ceiling; as an architect, the great dome of St. Peter’s; and a a sculptor, the monumental tomb of Pope Julius II with its world famous Moses and the tombs of the Medici princes. Moreover, there are numerous individual works by Michelangelo, any one of which in its own right justifies his lasting fame. His work, impresses with powerful individuality, is endowed with elements of sublimity and the deepest spiritual significance.

Michelangelo’s Pieta, commissioned in c. 1498 A.D., is the only work by the artist which bears his complete signature. The subject matter of the Pieta was derived from northern European works, which were normally of wood and depicted Mary and Jesus as grotesque figures in agony. Michelangelo transposed this foreign theme into a restrained and compassionate sermon in stone.

The sculpture of the Pieta, imbued with technical virtuosity, is ingenious in conception. For example, in contrast to the life-sized portrayal of Christ, the youthful Mary, whose head is the same size as his, would be approximately seven feet tall if she were “imagined” standing. Interestingly enough, the serenity and magical countenance that the work evoked is not disturbed by Michelangelo’s deviation from correct proportion.

142. Moses: Cast of the original in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome - 16th Century

The commission for the tomb of Pope Julius II was given to Michelangelo by the warrior pope who named himself after the Roman conqueror Julius Caesar. Julius II desired to erect one of the greatest tribute monuments of his time. Michelangelo’s initial concept for the grandiose plan was to have the monument stand, unsurrounded, in old St. Peter’s, Rome, to be lavishly complemented by reliefs, and to be accented by forty colossal statues. The design assumed such proportions that Julius II elected to rebuild the church on a scale proportionate to that of the tomb. The new church was begun in 1506 A.D. The grand vision of the artist was never realized. The pope’s subsequent indifference, followed by his death and the dissatisfaction of successors to papal authority, altered the original plan. The tomb was not completed until after 1547 A.D. when, reduced in size, it was erected in the less prestigious Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, and given the ordinary position of a wall decoration tomb. The original number of forty statues was reduced to six, three of which Michelangelo sculpted himself.

The majestic figure of Moses is speculated by some sources as an idealized portrait of Pope Julius II himself. Old Testament text claiming light beams radiated from the head of Moses was evidently misinterpreted in the Latin translation; thus Moses is adorned with “horns”, a misinterpretation of the Hebrew word for “light”. It is also quite probable that the genius of the artist utilized the concept of such a paradox to heighten his intense portrayal of the prophet.

143-145. Tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino: Cast of the original in the New Sacristy of the Church of San Lorenzo, Florence - 16th century

In 1520 A.D. Michelangelo (c. 1475-1564 A.D.) was commissioned by Pope Leo X, Giovanni de’Medici, to design a new chapel for the family’s church. As originally conceived by the artist, it was to have been another magnificent monument of art, enriched with elaborate sculptured decorations. It is conjectured that in the initial design, four tombs of the Medici were to have formed the principle part. Again, Michelangelo’s ideas were never realized. The political upheavals in Florence necessitated the abandonment of the plan and the decoration of the chapel remained unfinished. Michelangelo completed the tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo de’Medici, the latter of which is represented in the museum’s collection.

The central figure from the tomb sculptures is Lorenzo de’Medici, Duke of Urbino (c. 1492-1519 A.D), grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent. The figure is called “Il pensoso” (the thoughtful) and represents an idealized portrait of Lorenzo who sits buried deep in though with head bowed upon his hand. The two reclining figures are allegorical, representing “Dawn” on the right and “Dusk” on the left. Dawn is the figure of a woman awakening from sleep while Dusk, the powerful figure of a man, is depicted slowly succumbing to slumber.

146. King Arthur: Cast of the original in the Foundation Church at Innsbruck, Austria - 16th century

The original bronze sculpture of King Arthur, a legendary ruler of the Britons, was designed for the tomb of King Arthur, a legendary ruler of the Britons, was designed for the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian. The work is attributed to Peter Vischer (c. 1460-1529 A.D.) of Nuremberg, who was the foremost of the German bronze casters of his time and is considered one of the masters in German art. The figure of King Arthur is noted for its noble bearing, delicate proportions and perfect execution.

147. Reproductions of Medals of the Renaissance: Principally Italian 15th-16th century

The art of the medalist, an important development in Renaissance art, began in Italy where early medals were modeled in wax. The obverse or face of the medal bears a portrait of an important personage, and the reverse presents a design, often of great merit.

Vittore Pisano, represented by five of his best medals and considered the first and finest Italian medalist, excelled in compositions, design, and portraiture. Other great artists of the early period were Pasti and Sperandio, whose work is represented.

In the 16^th Century the medals were struck from engraved dies resulting in a popularity of the art and an influx of inferior artist who showed less originality. However, the artisans displayed great delicacy of design and technical skill. Especially important representations in the collection are works by Leoni and Trezzo.

Knowledge of the art spread quickly to other countries, and in France some very fine medals were produced. Duprè and Perreal were among the leading French medalists whose work is included in the collection.

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